# Schopenhauer's 38 Stratagems ## The Idea in Brief Arthur Schopenhauer catalogued 38 rhetorical tricks people use to win arguments regardless of whether they're right. This isn't a how-to guide for manipulation—it's a field guide for recognising when someone is playing games instead of seeking truth. Once you see the patterns, you can't unsee them. --- ## Key Concepts ### The Premise Schopenhauer observed that in most debates, people care more about winning than about being right. The 38 stratagems are the techniques they use—some subtle, some crude, all effective against the unprepared. ### Categories of Stratagems **Extension and distortion** — Take your opponent's claim and stretch it beyond what they said. If someone argues "we should be careful with AI," reframe it as "so you want to ban all technology?" Now they're defending a position they never held. **Homonymy and ambiguity** — Exploit words with multiple meanings. Shift definitions mid-argument. Use technical terms loosely, then precisely, depending on what helps. **Hidden conclusions** — Don't reveal where you're heading. Extract small admissions one by one. Only at the end do you show how they've already conceded your main point. **Appeal to authority** — Cite experts, ideally ones your opponent respects. Misquote if necessary—few will check. "As Aristotle said..." carries weight whether or not Aristotle actually said it. **Provoke emotion** — Make your opponent angry. Angry people argue badly. Push buttons, then act confused when they react. "I'm just asking questions." **Attack the person** — When the argument fails, attack the arguer. Question their motives, their expertise, their character. The audience forgets the logic. **Claim victory regardless** — If you can't win, declare you've won anyway. Summarise the debate in your favour. Most audiences won't reconstruct the actual exchange. ### Selected Stratagems **Stratagem 8: Make your opponent angry.** An angry person loses judgment. They'll overstate, contradict themselves, or storm off—all of which you can use. **Stratagem 11: If they agree to particulars, don't ask for the general.** Secure each small admission without revealing the conclusion. Present it as already accepted only at the end. **Stratagem 27: If opposition becomes intense, press that point.** You've found where they're weak. Their emotional reaction tells you exactly where to push. **Stratagem 30: Appeal to authority rather than reason.** Everyone has authorities they respect. Use them. Twist their words if needed—your opponent probably hasn't read the original. **Stratagem 38: Become personal, insulting, rude.** The last resort. When you're losing on substance, attack the person. It's cheap but effective—especially if they take the bait. --- ## Implications **In negotiation:** Recognise when the other party has shifted from problem-solving to position-defending. The stratagems signal when someone has stopped caring about the right answer. **In management:** Bad-faith arguers in meetings waste everyone's time. Name the stratagem when you see it: "That's extending what I said—my actual point was X." Sunlight disinfects. **In your own thinking:** The stratagems work because they exploit real cognitive weaknesses. Understanding them helps you catch yourself when you're playing to win rather than to learn. **In reading/listening:** Politicians, pundits, and salespeople use these constantly. Once you know the playbook, you hear the moves. It changes how you consume arguments. --- ## Sources - Schopenhauer, A. (c. 1831). *The Art of Being Right* (also translated as *The Art of Controversy*) - [[Never Split the Difference]] — Voss's tactical empathy is partly about recognising when the other side has shifted to combat mode - [[Thinking, Fast and Slow]] — Many stratagems exploit System 1 shortcuts ---